AMENORRHEA AND CAUSES

Amenorrhea is the absence of menstrual bleeding in a woman of reproductive age.

Amenorrhea has two main types:

Primary Amenorrhea: This is when a girl over age 15 has never had her period.

Secondary Amenorrhea: This is when a woman who has had regular periods stops having her period for six months or longer.

The most common cause of amenorrhea is pregnancy. Other causes of amenorrhea include problems with the reproductive organs or with the glands that help regulate hormone levels. Treatment of the underlying condition often resolves amenorrhea.

SYMPTOMS:

The main sign of amenorrhea is the absence of menstrual periods. Depending on the cause of amenorrhea, you might experience other signs or symptoms along with the absence of periods, such as:

·         Milky nipple discharge

·         Hair loss

·         Headache

·         Vision changes

·         Excess facial hair

·         Pelvic pain

·         Acne

CAUSES:

Amenorrhea can occur for a variety of reasons. Some are normal during the course of a woman's life, while others may be a side effect of medication or a sign of a medical problem.

 During the normal course of life, one may experience amenorrhea for natural reasons, such as:

·         Pregnancy

·         Breast-feeding

·         Menopause

MEDICATION/CONTRACEPTIVES: Some women who take birth control pills may not have periods. This may continue even after stopping oral contraceptives, it may take some time before regular ovulation and menstruation return. Contraceptives that are injected or implanted also may cause amenorrhea, as can some types of intrauterine devices.

Certain medications can also cause menstrual periods to stop, including some types of:

·         Antipsychotics

·         Cancer chemotherapy

·         Antidepressants

·         Blood pressure drugs

·         Allergy medications

STRESS: Mental stress can temporarily alter the hormones that regulate the menstrual cycle. Ovulation and menstruation may stop as a result. Regular menstrual periods usually resume after stress decreases.

HORMONAL IMBALANCE: Many types of medical problems can cause hormonal imbalance, including:

·         Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).

·         Thyroid malfunction.

·         Pituitary tumor.

Problems with the sexual organs themselves also can cause amenorrhea. Examples include:

·         Lack of reproductive organs. Sometimes problems arise during fetal development that lead to a girl being born without some major part of her reproductive system, such as her uterus, cervix or vagina. Because her reproductive system didn't develop normally, she can't have menstrual cycles.

·         Structural abnormality of the vagina. An obstruction of the vagina may prevent visible menstrual bleeding. A membrane or wall may be present in the vagina that blocks the outflow of blood from the uterus and cervix.

RISK FACTORS:

Factors that may increase your risk of amenorrhea includes:

·         Family history. If other women in your family have experienced amenorrhea, you may inherit a predisposition for the problem.

·         Eating disorders. If you have an eating disorder, such as anorexia or bulimia, you are at higher risk of developing amenorrhea.

·         Athletic training. Rigorous athletic training can increase your risk of amenorrhea.

TREATMENT:

Treatment usually depends on the cause of the amenorrhea.

Treatments for amenorrhea may include medications, surgery, lifestyle changes, or a combination of these measures.

Lifestyle changes may include:

• Taking steps to reach a healthy weight and maintain that weight (if you're under- or overweight)
• Interventions to reduce stress
• If you're an athlete, modifying the way you train or eat

Medical treatments for amenorrhea may include:

• Hormonal medications, such as birth control pills
• Estrogen replacement therapy
• Medications for PCOS

Surgical treatments for amenorrhea may include:

• Removal of scar tissue in the uterus
• Removal of noncancerous pituitary tumor

FLU AND YOU

The flu is a respiratory (i.e., nose, throat, and lung) infection that is caused basically by influenza viruses. Many people use the word "flu" when they actually have a cold. Although the common cold is also caused by viruses, the flu and common cold differ in several ways. Influenza, or flu, is a respiratory illness caused by a virus. Flu is highly contagious and is normally spread by the coughs and sneezes of an infected person.

One can also catch flu by touching an infected person (Shaking hands). Adults are contagious 1-2 days before getting symptoms and up to 7 days after becoming ill. This means that you can spread the influenza virus before you even know you are infected.

One can recover from flu within 1 to 2 weeks, but some people are at risk of developing complications such as pneumonia.

CAUSES

Flu is contagious, which means it can easily spread from person to person. Viruses that cause flu spread from person to person mainly by droplets of respiratory fluids sent through the air when someone infected with the virus coughs or sneezes. Other people inhale the airborne virus and can become infected.

Flu virus can live on some surfaces for about 23-24 hours. This means that, in some cases, the flu can be spread when someone touches a surface (e.g., doorknobs, counter-tops, telephones, keyboards) that has the virus on it and then touches their nose, mouth, or eyes. The flu is most easily spread in crowded places such as schools and offices.

It takes 1 to 4 days to incubate in humans, but infected people can become contagious starting the day before symptoms appear. Adults remain infectious for about 6 days, and children remain infectious for up to 10 days.

SYMPTOMS

 Symptoms of flu include sore throat, fever, headache, muscle aches and soreness, congestion, and cough. Swine flu in particular is also associated with vomiting and diarrhea.

Initial flu symptoms include headaches, chills, and a cough. Symptoms such as fever, loss of appetite, and muscle aches soon follow. Other symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea are rare in adults but more common in children.

Since many people think they have the flu when it's actually a bad cold, here's a quick guide to help you tell the difference:

Symptom	Cold	Flu
Symptom onset	Gradual	abrupt
fever	Uncommon	usually present, high (38°C to 41°C or 102°F to 104°F); lasts 3 to 4 days
headache	Uncommon	very common
aches and pains	Slight	common and often severe
fatigue and weakness	Mild	significant; can last 2 to 3 weeks
extreme exhaustion	Never	very common at the start
stuffy nose	Common	sometimes
sneezing	Common	sometimes
sore throat	Common	sometimes
chest discomfort and cough	mild to moderate, hacking cough	common; often severe with painful cough

PREVENTION

1.    Avoid close contact.
Avoid close contact with people who are sick. When you are sick, keep your distance from others to protect them from getting sick too.

2.    Stay home when sick.
If possible, stay home from work, school, and errands when you are sick. This will help prevent spreading your illness to others.

3.    Cover your mouth and nose.
Cover your mouth and nose with a tissue when coughing or sneezing. It may prevent those around you from getting sick. Flu and other serious respiratory illnesses, like respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), whooping cough, and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), are spread by cough, sneezing, or unclean hands.

4.    Clean your hands.
Washing your hands often will help protect you from germs. If soap and water are not available, use an alcohol-based hand rub.

TUBERCULOSIS (TB) AWARENESS

Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease usually caused by the bacterium mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is a serious infectious disease that mainly affects the lungs. This bacteria is spread from one person to another through tiny droplets released into the air via coughs and sneezes.

It used to be rare in developed countries, tuberculosis infections began increasing in 1985, partly because of the emergence of HIV, the virus that causes AIDS. HIV weakens a person's immune system so it can't fight the TB germs.

Many strains of tuberculosis resist the drugs most used to treat the disease. People with active tuberculosis must take several types of medications for many months to eradicate the infection and prevent development of antibiotic resistance.

SYMPTOMS

Although your body may harbor the bacteria that cause tuberculosis, your immune system usually can prevent you from becoming sick. For this reason, doctors make a distinction between:

·         Latent TB. In this condition, one has a TB infection, but the bacteria remain in the body in an inactive state and cause no symptoms. Latent TB, also called inactive TB is not contagious. It can turn into active TB, so treatment is important for the person with latent TB and to help control the spread of TB.

·         Active TB. This is the infectious TB, it shows signs and can spread to others. It can occur in the first few weeks after infection with the TB bacteria, or it might occur years later.

Signs and symptoms of active TB include:

·         Coughing that lasts three or more weeks

·         Coughing up blood

·         Chest pain, or pain with breathing or coughing

·         Unintentional weight loss

·         Fatigue

·         Fever

·         Night sweats

·         Chills

·         Loss of appetite

Tuberculosis can also affect other parts of the body. Tuberculosis can affect the kidney, spine and brain. When TB occurs outside the lungs, signs and symptoms vary according to the organs involved. For example, tuberculosis of the spine may give you back pain, and tuberculosis in your kidneys might cause blood in your urine.

CAUSES

Tuberculosis is caused by bacteria that spread from person to person through microscopic droplets released into the air. This can happen when someone with the untreated, active form of tuberculosis coughs, speaks, sneezes, spits, laughs or sings.

Although tuberculosis is contagious, it is not easy to catch. You are much more likely to get tuberculosis from someone you live with or work with than from a stranger. Most people with active TB who have had appropriate drug treatment for at least two weeks are no longer contagious

HIV AND TB

Due to the emergence of HIV, cases of tuberculosis increased dramatically. Infection with HIV suppresses the immune system, making it difficult for the body to fight TB bacteria. As a result, people living with HIV are many times more likely to get TB and to progress from latent to active disease.

RISK FACTORS

Anyone can get tuberculosis, but certain factors can increase your risk of the disease. These factors include:

Weakened immune system

A healthy immune system often successfully fights TB bacteria, but a weak immune system won’t be able to fight germs and bacteria. A number of diseases and medications can weaken your immune system, including:

·         HIV/AIDS

·         Diabetes

·         Severe kidney disease

·         Certain cancers

·         Cancer treatment, such as chemotherapy

·         Drugs to prevent rejection of transplanted organs

·         Some drugs used to treat rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn's disease and psoriasis

·         Malnutrition

PREVENTION

If you test positive for latent TB infection, your doctor may advise you to take medications to reduce your risk of developing active tuberculosis. The only type of tuberculosis that is contagious is the active variety, when it affects the lungs. So if you can prevent your latent tuberculosis from becoming active, you won't transmit tuberculosis to anyone else.

Vaccinations

In countries where tuberculosis is more common, infants often are vaccinated with bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vaccine because it can prevent severe tuberculosis in children.

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT TONSILLITIS?

Tonsillitis is the inflammation of the tonsils. Tonsils are two oval-shaped pads of tissue at the back of the throat. Tonsils act as filters, trapping germs that could otherwise enter your airways and cause infection. They also produce antibodies to fight infection. But sometimes the tonsils themselves become infected. Overwhelmed by bacteria or viruses, they swell and become inflamed, a condition known as tonsillitis.

Tonsillitis is common with children. Most cases of tonsillitis are caused by infection with a common virus, but bacterial infections also may cause tonsillitis. The condition can occur occasionally or recur frequently. 

SYMPTOMS

Tonsillitis most commonly affects children between preschool ages and the mid-teenage years. Common signs and symptoms of tonsillitis include:

• Red, swollen tonsils
• White or yellow coating or patches on the tonsils
• Sore throat
• Difficult or painful swallowing
• Fever
• Enlarged, tender glands (lymph nodes) in the neck
• A scratchy, muffled or throaty voice
• Bad breath
• Stomachache, particularly in younger children
• Stiff neck
• Headache

In children, symptoms may also include:

• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Abdominal pain

WHY DO TONSILS GET INFECTED?

The tonsils are the immune system's first line of defense against bacteria and viruses that enter your mouth. This function may make the tonsils particularly vulnerable to infection and inflammation. However, the tonsil's immune system function declines after puberty — a factor that may account for the rare cases of tonsillitis in adults.

COMPLICATIONS

Inflammation or swelling of the tonsils from frequent or ongoing (chronic) tonsillitis can cause complications such as:

• Difficulty breathing
• Disrupted breathing during sleep
• Infection that spreads deep into surrounding tissue (tonsillar cellulitis)
• Infection that results in a collection of pus behind a tonsil (peritonsillar abscess)

TREATMENT

Treatment for tonsillitis will depend in part on the cause. To determine the cause, your doctor may perform a rapid strep test or throat swab culture. Both tests involve gently swabbing the back of the throat close to the tonsils with a cotton swab. A lab test can detect a bacterial infection. A viral infection will not show on the test, but may be assumed if the test for bacteria is negative

If tests reveal bacteria, treatment will consist of antibiotics to cure the infection. Symptoms will likely improve within two or three days after starting the antibiotic. It is important to take all of the medication your doctor prescribes to make sure the bacteria are gone.

PREVENTION

The germs that cause viral and bacterial tonsillitis are contagious. Therefore, the best prevention is to practice good hygiene. Teach your child to:

• Wash his or her hands thoroughly and frequently, especially after using the toilet and before eating
• Avoid sharing food, drinking glasses, water bottles or utensils
• Replace his or her toothbrush after being diagnosed with tonsillitis

To help your child prevent the spread of a bacterial or viral infection to others:

• Keep your child at home when he or she is ill
• Ask your doctor when it's all right for your child to return to school
• Teach your child to cough or sneeze into a tissue or, when necessary, into his or her elbow
• Teach your child to wash his or her hands after sneezing or coughing